Background Of Language Learning Strategies English Language Essay

Background Of speech study Strategies English Language EssayThis chapter covers the background of wording encyclopedism strategies (LLS), the literature review including the definitions of key bournes, classifications of LLS, the characteristics of LLS, the factors influencing the option of LLS, evidences from previous research studies, the teachers role in LLS training, and theoretical concepts.2.1 Background of Language Learning StrategiesResearch on talking to encyclopedism strategies has been conducted since the 1960s. Williams and Burden (1997, p. 149) tell that festerings in cognitive psychology influenced much of research done on row information strategies. In most of the research on voice talk produceing strategies, the spark advance concern has been on identifying what superb style learners report they do to learn a second or strange manner of speaking, or, in round cases, ar find doing while encyclopedism a second or foreign language (Rubin Wenden 1 987, p. 19). In 1966, Carton published The Method of Inference in Foreign Language Study, which was the initial effort to describe second language learners strategies. Then in 1971, Rubin began to conduct research visualiseing the strategies of successful learners and affirmed that, once adjudge, such strategies could be do available to less successful learners. Rubin (1975) categorized strategies in conditions of processes alter directly or confirmatoryly to language study. Wong-Fillmore (1976), Tarone (1977), Naiman et al. (1978), Bialystok (1979), Cohen and Aphek (1981), Wenden (1982), Chamot and OM every last(predicate)ey (1987), Politzer and McGroarty (1985), Conti and Kolsody (1997), and many others entertain also researched strategies utilise by language learners during foreign language reading.2.2 Literature Review2.2.1 Defining conceptsThere have been many researchers trying to give a definition of the term language encyclopedism strategies. In the ancient Greek language, Strategy = strategia heart generalship or the knack of fighting (Yi et al., 2007). In a more dead intelligence, strategy entails the most favourable supervision of troops, ships or aircraft in a designed operation while tactic is diverse, but is associated with sub-strategies which are the apparatus to contact the achievement of strategies. In non-military settings, the concept of strategy has been applied to the non-adversarial situations, where it has come to imply an arrangement, movement or an act is employ for attaining a detailed purpose (Oxford, 1990). Oxford (1990) stated that strategies are particularly important for language teaching beca office they are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing communicative competency (p. 1). Because they are very noteworthy, knowledge strategies have been broadly employed in the learning field. Many researchers have tried to give definitions to language learning strategy using diam etrical ground and distinguishable concepts of their own which leave behind be discussed in the following paragraphs.Many researchers have conceptualised variously the term language learning strategies. Strategy originates from ancient Greek language strategia, which implies fighting capability (Yi et al., 2007). Regarding military field, strategy is funda intellectual to troop surveillance, while tactic is a tool to achieve the strategic goal. Apart from militarism, strategy has been define as preparedness to accomplish a target (Oxford, 1990). To develop communicative competence, strategies are indispensable to language learning (Oxford, 1990, p.1). For this reason, most researchers have viewed language learning strategy diversely as follows.Schemeck (1988) defined strategy as the performance of a set of actions (tactics) for accomplishing some goal and learning strategy as a chain of actions for accomplishing learning (p. 5). Weinstein and Mayer (1986) explained that learning strategies are behaviours and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning and that are projected to persuade the learners encoding process (p. 315). More specifically, Rigney (1978) gave a definition of a learning strategy as cognitive strategy which is employ to indicate operations and procedures that the student may use to acquire, retain, and retrieve different kinds of knowledge and performance (p. 165).Rubin (1975) defined strategies as the techniques or devices, which a learner may use to acquire knowledge (p. 43). Later, Rubin (1981) did a study to discover cognitive strategies in second language learning and got to know the distinction between direct and indirect language learning strategies. In 1987, Rubin proposed language learning strategies as strategies which lead to the improvement of the language structure which the learner builds and which shapes learning from then on (p. 23). She also recommended that language learning strategies consist of any set of opera tions, steps, plans, routines used by the learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval and use of information (p. 19).Bialystock (1978) defined learning strategies as optional means for exploiting available information to improve competence in a second language (p. 71). He then identified four kinds of language learning strategies (a) formal practising (b) functional practising (c) monitoring and (d) inferencing. According to OMalley et al. (1985), language learning strategies have been broadly defined as any set of operations or steps used by a learner that will facilitate the erudition, storage, retrieval or use of information (p. 23). In this study, they classified twenty-six strategies into three subgroups metacognitive, cognitive, and social-emotive. In the same way, Chamot (1987) said learning strategies are techniques, approaches, or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning and recall of both linguistic and content area information (p. 71). She proposed that some language learning strategies are observable, but some may not be. In a cognitive perspective, OMalley and Chamot thought of language learning strategies as the special thoughts or behaviours that individuals used to help them comprehend, learn, or retain spic-and-span information (p. 1).Nisbet (1986) gave another explanation of language learning strategies as always determined and goal-oriented, but perhaps not always accepted at a conscious or deliberate level. They groundwork be long-lasting or so speedy in carrying out that it is unfeasible for the learner to bring back, recall or even be responsive that one has utilized a strategy (p. 25). Oxford and Crookall (1989) defined language learning strategies as steps interpreted by the learner to aid the acquisition, storage, and retrieval of information (p. 404). They noted that strategies may be used consciously but they can also create habitual and automatic with practice. Similarly, Oxford (199 0) claimed that learning strategies are steps taken by students to enhance their own learning (p. 1), and she said they were specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations (p. 8). Scrella Oxford (1992) found that learning strategies were specific actions, behaviours, steps, or techniques-such as quest out conversation partners, or giving oneself encouragement to tackle a difficult language task-used by students to enhance their own learning (p. 63).MacIntyre (1994) argued that the term strategy implied active planning in pursuit of some goal, which was not something that would automatically occur. He emphasised the learners deliberate action of language learning strategies. He provided a different perspective of defining language learning strategies as the actions chosen by language students that are intended to facilitate language acquisition and communication (p. 1 90). The definition focuses more on learners intention and choice in using language learning strategies. In 1999, Nunan gave the definition of learning strategies as mental and communicative procedures learners use in order to learn and use language (p. 171). Four researchers, Chamot, Barnhadt, El-Dinary Rubbins (1999), defined learning strategies as the thoughts and actions engaged in, consciously or not, to learn new information (p. 1). Lastly, Hall (2001) referred learning strategies to goal-directed actions that were used by learners to mediate their own learning (p. 92).Researchers have recognized and illustrated language learning strategies which language learners use when they process new information and perform responsibilities (Hismanoglu, 2000). In the subsequent section, how different researchers have classified language learning strategies will be suddenly summarized.Language learners should know exactly the strategies to be used in order to improve their achievement. Cohen, Weaver, Li (1996) argued thatStrategies for language learning and language use have been receiving ever-growing assistance in the areas of foreign language teaching and learning (Oxford 1990, Cohen 1990, OMalley Chamot 1990, Wenden 1991, Brown 1991, Rubin Thompson 1994, Mendelsohn 1994, Mc Donough 1995). It is fair to say that language educators in many different contexts have been seeking ways to help students become more successful in their efforts to learn and communicate in foreign languages. The application of foreign language learning and use strategies is viewed as one vehicle for promoting greater success. A strategy is considered to be effective if it provides positive support to the students in their attempts to learn or use the foreign language. (p. 3)The Qualifications and Curriculum Development Agency (2009) defines successful learners aspeople who own essential literate learning skills, numeracy and information and technology of communication.people who have good sense of creativity, are resourceful in identifying and problem solving.people who process information, reason, question and carry out evaluation by themselves.people who communicate in many means.people who understand how they learn and learn from their mistakes.people who are able to learn individually and work in groups.people who have realness knowledge.people who enjoy learning and are motivated to achieve the best they can now and in the future.2.2.2 Taxonomy of Language Learning StrategiesSince the 1960s, the research of language learning strategies has been conducted by many language researchers (Wenden Rubin, 1987 OMalley et al., 1985 Oxford, 1990 macabre, 1992 Ellis, 1994). Most of these attempts to categorize language learning strategies are a sign of more or less the same classifications of language learning strategies without any fundamental changes. As below, OMalleys (1985), Rubins (1987), Sterns (1992), and Oxfords (1990) taxonomies of language learning strat egies will be described2.2.2.1 OMalleys (1985) Classification of Language Learning StrategiesOMalley et al. (1985, pp. 582-584) divide language learning strategies into three main subcategoriesMetacognitive StrategiesCognitive StrategiesSocioaffective StrategiesA. Metacognitive StrategiesIt can be stated that metacognitive is a term to express executive function, strategies which require planning for learning, thinking about the learning process as it is taking place, monitoring of ones production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is complete. Among the main metacognitive strategies, it is possible to include advance organizers, directed tending, discriminating attention, self-management, functional planning, self-monitoring, delayed production, self-evaluation.B. Cognitive StrategiesCognitive strategies are more limited to specific learning tasks and they involve more direct manipulation of the learning cloth itself. Repetition, resourcing, translation, grouping, note-taking, deduction, recombination, imaginary, auditory representation, key word, contextualization, elaboration, transfer, influencing are among the most important cognitive strategies.C. Socioaffective StrategiesAs to the socioaffective strategies, it can be stated that they are related with social-mediating activity and transacting with others. Cooperation and questioning for illumination are the main socioaffective strategies (Brown, 1987, pp. 93-94).2.2.2.2 Rubins (1987) Classification of Language Learning StrategiesRubin, who pioneered much of the work in the field of strategies, makes the distinction between strategies contributing directly to learning and those contributing indirectly to learning. According to Rubin (1987), there are three types of strategies used by learners that contribute directly or indirectly to language learning. These areLearning Strategiescommunicating StrategiesSocial StrategiesA. Learning StrategiesThey are of two main types, being t he strategies contributing directly to the development of the language system constructed by the learnerCognitive Learning StrategiesMetacognitive Learning StrategiesA.1 Cognitive Learning StrategiesThey refer to the steps or operations used in learning or problem-solving that requires direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials. Rubin identified six main cognitive learning strategies contributing directly to language learningClarification/VerificationGuessing/Inductive InferencingDeductive ratiocinationPracticeMemorizationMonitoringA.2 Metacognitive Learning StrategiesThese strategies are used to oversee, regulate or self-direct language learning. They involve various processes as planning, prioritizing, setting goals, and self-management.B. Communication StrategiesThey are less directly related to language learning since their focus is on the process of participating in a conversation and getting meaning or clarifying what the speaker intended. Communicati on strategies are used by speakers when faced with some difficulty due to the fact that their communication ends outrun their communication means or when confronted with misunderstanding by a co-speaker.C. Social StrategiesSocial strategies are those activities learners engage in which afford them opportunities to be exposed to and practice their knowledge. Although these strategies provide icon to the target language, they contribute indirectly to learning since they do not lead directly to the obtaining, storing, retrieving, and using of language (Rubin Wenden, 1987, pp. 23-27).2.2.2.3 Sterns (1992) Classification of Language Learning StrategiesAccording to Stern (1992, pp. 262-266), there are five main language learning strategies as followsManagement and Planning StrategiesCognitive StrategiesCommunicative-Experiential StrategiesInterpersonal Strategies affectional StrategiesA. Management and Planning StrategiesThese strategies are related to the learners intention to direct h is own learning. A learner can take charge of the development of his own programme when he is helped by a teacher whose role is that of an adviser and resource person. This is to say that the learner must make up what commitment to make to language learningset himself reasonable goalsdecide on an appropriate methodology, select appropriate resources, and monitor progress,evaluate his achievement in the light of previously determined goals and expectations (Stern, 1992, p. 263).B. Cognitive StrategiesThey are steps or operations used in learning or problem solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials. In the following, some of the cognitive strategies are exhibitedClarification/VerificationGuessing/Inductive InferencingDeductive ReasoningPracticeMemorizationMonitoringC. Communicative-Experiential StrategiesCommunication strategies, such as circumlocution, gesturing, paraphrase, or inquire for repetition and explanation are techniques used by learners so as to keep a conversation going. The purpose of using these techniques is to avoid interrupting the flow of communication (Stern, 1992, p. 265).D. Interpersonal StrategiesThey should monitor their own development and evaluate their own performance. Learners should contact with native speakers and cooperate with them. Learners must become acquainted with the target culture (Stern, 1992, pp. 265-266).E. affectional StrategiesIt is evident that good language learners employ distinct affective strategies. Language learning can be frustrating in some cases. In some cases, the feeling of strangeness can be evoked by the foreign language. In some cases, L2 learners may have negative feelings about native speakers of L2. correct language learners are more or less conscious of these emotional problems. Good language learners try to create associations of positive affect towards the foreign language and its speakers as well as towards the learning activities involved. Learnin g training can help students to face up the emotional difficulties and to overcome them by drawing attention to the potential frustrations or pointing them out as they arise (Stern, 1992, p. 266).2.2.2.4 Oxfords (1990) Classification of Language Learning StrategiesOxford (1990, p. 9) sees the aim of language learning strategies as being oriented towards the development of communicative competence. Oxford divides language learning strategies into two main classes, direct and indirect, which are further subdivided into six groups (cognitive, storehouse, and compensation under the direct metacognitive, affective, and social under the indirect class) (see Figure 1).Each of six groups shown above has some more concrete strategies, as shown in Table 1 and Table 2. Some language learning strategies which relate with learning directly are called direct strategies. All direct strategies require mental processing of the target language, but the three groups of direct strategies (cognitive, m emory and compensation) do this processing differently and for different process (Oxford, 1990). Cognitive strategies, such as practising or analysing, enable learners to understand and produce new language by many different means. Memory strategies, such as grouping or using imaginary, have highly specific functions. They help students store and retrieve new information. Compensation strategies, like guessing or using synonyms, allow learners to use the language despite their often large gaps in knowledge.Other language learning strategies are called indirect strategies because they support and manage language learning without, in many instances, directly involving the target language (Oxford, 1990). Indirect strategies are divided into metacognitive, affective and social. Metacognitive strategies allow learners to control their own cognition that is, learners can coordinate their own learning processes by using study habits such as centering, arranging, planning and evaluating. Af fective strategies help regulate emotions, motivations and attitudes. Social strategies help students to learn through interaction with others. Indirect strategies are useful in virtually all language learning situations and are applicable to all four language skills listening, reading, speaking and writing.2.2.3 Characteristics of Language Learning StrategiesClouston (1997) maintains that the terminology is given differently by researchers, some use the terms learner strategies (Wendin Rubin, 1987), others learning strategies (OMalley Chamot, 1990 Chamot OMalley, 1994), and others still use language learning strategies (Oxford, 1990a, 1996), but there are a number of fundamental characteristics in the commonly acknowledged analysis of LLS. First, learners generate LLS which are steps taken by learners of the language. Second, LLS improve language learning and facilitate enlarge language competency, as feedback in the learners skills in listening, speaking, reading or writing the L2 or FL. Third, LLS might be able to be seen (behaviours, steps, techniques, etc.) or unseen (thoughts, mental processes). Four, LLS engage information and memory (vocabulary knowledge, grammar rules, etc.). class period the LLS literature, additional aspects of LLS are less consistently acknowledged. Oxford (1990a) and others such as Wenden and Rubin (1987) distinguish an aspiration for control and independence of learning on the part of the learner all the way through LLS. Cohen (1990) persists that only mindful strategies are LLS, and that there must be a selection about the part of the learner. Strategy transferring from one language or language skill to another is an associated purpose of LLS, as Pearson (1988) and Skehan (1989) have argued. In her teacher-oriented text, Oxford sums up her opinion of LLS by citing twelve vital qualities. Additionally, she states that LLSlet learners become more self-directedenlarge the responsibilities of language teachersare problem-oriented include many points of view, not just the cognitivecan be educatedare unsealedare manipulated by a wide range of factors(Oxford, 1990a, p. 9)2.2.4 Factors Influencing Strategy ChoiceThere are several factors which affect the second language learner with regard to types of strategies she or he chooses to use. Oxford (1994) concluded available research on how the